Transaction and messages
We noted earlier that Ethereum is a transaction-based state machine. In other words, transactions occurring between different accounts are what move the global state of Ethereum from one state to the next.
In the most basic sense, a transaction is a cryptographically signed piece of instruction that is generated by an externally owned account, serialized, and then submitted to the blockchain.
There are two types of transactions: message calls and contract creations (i.e. transactions that create new Ethereum contracts).
All transactions contain the following components, regardless of their type:
nonce: a count of the number of transactions sent by the sender.
gasPrice: the number of Wei that the sender is willing to pay per unit of gas required to execute the transaction.
gasLimit: the maximum amount of gas that the sender is willing to pay for executing this transaction. This amount is set and paid upfront, before any computation is done.
to: the address of the recipient. In a contract-creating transaction, the contract account address does not yet exist, and so an empty value is used.
value: the amount of Wei to be transferred from the sender to the recipient. In a contract-creating transaction, this value serves as the starting balance within the newly created contract account.
v, r, s: used to generate the signature that identifies the sender of the transaction.
init (only exists for contract-creating transactions): An EVM code fragment that is used to initialize the new contract account. init is run only once, and then is discarded. When init is first run, it returns the body of the account code, which is the piece of code that is permanently associated with the contract account.
data (optional field that only exists for message calls): the input data (i.e. parameters) of the message call. For example, if a smart contract serves as a domain registration service, a call to that contract might expect input fields such as the domain and IP address.
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We learned in the “Accounts” section that transactions — both message calls and contract-creating transactions — are always initiated by externally owned accounts and submitted to the blockchain. Another way to think about it is that transactions are what bridge the external world to the internal state of Ethereum.
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But this doesn’t mean that contracts can’t talk to other contracts. Contracts that exist within the global scope of Ethereum’s state can talk to other contracts within that same scope. The way they do this is via “messages” or “internal transactions” to other contracts. We can think of messages or internal transactions as being similar to transactions, with the major difference that they are NOT generated by externally owned accounts. Instead, they are generated by contracts. They are virtual objects that, unlike transactions, are not serialized and only exist in the Ethereum execution environment.
When one contract sends an internal transaction to another contract, the associated code that exists on the recipient contract account is executed.
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One important thing to note is that internal transactions or messages don’t contain a gasLimit. This is because the gas limit is determined by the external creator of the original transaction (i.e. some externally owned account). The gas limit that the externally owned account sets must be high enough to carry out the transaction, including any sub-executions that occur as a result of that transaction, such as contract-to-contract messages. If, in the chain of transactions and messages, a particular message execution runs out of gas, then that message’s execution will revert, along with any subsequent messages triggered by the execution. However, the parent execution does not need to revert.
In the last section, we discussed how hackers organize to create a system like Bitcoin, and established that the machines in the network are used to enforce rules upon the participants. But it can also be said that the machines enforce rules upon each other, such that clever humans are frustrated when trying to change them. This section explores how computers are used to keep human participants honest.bitcoin презентация bitcoin торги bitcoin stellar ethereum mining gas ethereum
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In 2016, a blockchain project called The DAO, running on the ethereum blockchain, was launched with the aim of emulating a crowdfunding market. Your percentage of contribution to the fund represented the percentage vote in how the total fund would be spent.bitcoin buying anonymous bitcoinWithout the money, there is no security and without the security, the value of the currency and the integrity of the chain both break down. It is for this reason that a blockchain is only useful within the application of money, and money does not magically grow on trees. Yep, it is that simple. A blockchain is only good for one thing, removing the need for a trusted third-party which only works in the context of money. A blockchain cannot enforce anything that exists outside the network. While a blockchain would seem to be able to track ownership outside the network, it can only enforce ownership of the currency that is native to its network. Bitcoin tracks ownership and enforces ownership. If a blockchain cannot do both, any records it keeps will be inherently insecure and ultimately subject to change. In this sense, immutability is not an inherent trait of a blockchain but instead, an emergent property. And if a blockchain is not immutable, its currency will never be viable as a form of money because transfer and final settlement will never be reliably possible. Without reliable final settlement, a monetary system is not functional and will not attract liquidity.bitcoin redex расчет bitcoin
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Bitcoin mining is the process of earning bitcoin in exchange for running the verification process to validate bitcoin transactions. These transactions provide security for the Bitcoin network which in turn compensates miners by giving them bitcoins. Miners can profit if the price of bitcoins exceeds the cost to mine. With recent changes in technology and the creation of professional mining centers with enormous computing power, as well as the shifting price of bitcoin itself, many individual miners are asking themselves, is bitcoin mining still profitable? bitcoin x биржа ethereum bitcoin instaforex trinity bitcoin криптовалюты ethereum
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